The human circulatory system is critical for survival and systematically provides nutrients and oxygen as well as removing harmful waste products from all parts of the body. The heart is a critical component of the circulatory system in that it provides pumping power. Generally the right side of the heart receives blood from the ‘systemic circulation’ (all the body except the lungs) and pumps it into the ‘pulmonary circulation’ (lungs), whereas the left side of the heart receives blood from the lungs and pumps it back into the systemic circulation. Each side comprises an inflow or collecting chamber with a thin muscular wall, its ‘atrium’ and a thicker, more powerful muscular pumping chamber, its ‘ventricle’, which alters volume cyclically due to contraction and relaxation of the muscles in its walls. One-way valves are positioned in the passageway between the left and right atrium and the corresponding ventricle, and between each ventricle and the large arteries, which conduct blood into the systemic or pulmonary circulation, respectively. Because of this arrangement, each atrium may gently contract, causing blood to flow across the ‘atrioventricular’ valve into the ventricle, with that valve then closing to prevent return. Similarly, each ventricle may then forcefully contract, causing blood to flow across the outflow valves into the systemic or pulmonary circulation. A physical ailment or condition which compromises the effective muscular contraction in the walls of one or more chambers of the heart can therefore be particularly critical and may result in a condition which must be medically remedied if the person is to long survive.
More specifically, the muscle of the heart may degrade for various reasons to a point where the heart can no longer provide sufficient circulation of blood to maintain the health of a person at an acceptable level. In fact, the heart may degrade to the point of failure and not been able to sustain life. To address the problem of a failing natural heart, solutions are offered to maintain the circulation. Some of these solutions involve replacing the heart. Some involve assisting it with mechanical devices. Some are directed to maintain operation of the existing heart.
The heart may be removed and replaced with either a mechanical device (a total artificial heart) or a natural heart from another human or an animal (heart transplant). Artificial heart use has been complicated by consequences of blood clots forming on the internal lining. The most serious consequence is a breaking loose of such clots, which are then propelled into various parts of the circulation. In the event of such a clot being propelled into the brain, a disabling or fatal stroke may result. While human heart transplantation is limited by rejection, a response of the body's immune system, this may usually be controlled by medications to the degree that half of all recipients survive at least 10 years, generally with acceptable health and function. However a more serious limitation is numbers of available donors. These are usually accidental death victims whose hearts maintain function despite brain death. Currently these are available for less than 1 to 2 percent of potential beneficiaries (about 2000 per year in the United States for over 200,000 people dying of heart failure annually in the same country, for example).
Mechanical auxiliary pumps may assist the heart. These are of three general types: counterpulsators, pulsatile assist systems, and nonpulsatile assist systems. Counterpulsators such as intraaortic balloon pump cyclically remove or displace blood from the arterial system in synchrony with the natural heart's beat and, without valves, may perform substantial work for a weakened heart. Pulsatile assist systems (ventricular assist devices) are similar to artificial hearts except that they are used in addition to one or both sides of the heart rather than instead of the heart. They receive blood from either the atrium or ventricle on one side of the circulation and pump it into that side's arterial system, relieving the ventricle of part of its volume load, pressure load, or both. They consist of a blood chamber with at least partial wall flexibility, inflow and outflow valves, and some means, usually pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric, by which the wall may be moved and volume altered to pump blood. Nonpulsatile assist systems are rotary pumps, either centrifugal, axial flow, or a combination, that similarly pump blood in a steady flow from atrium or ventricle into circulatory systems. All of these mechanical pumps have extensive non-living material surfaces that contact blood. The complications of blood clotting with stroke or other serious aftermaths described with artificial hearts also occur with these mechanical auxiliary pumps.
Because of the severe shortage of human donor hearts for transplant, unsolved immunologic problems of animal donor hearts for transplants and prevalence of serious complications of artificial blood-contacting surfaces of both artificial hearts and auxiliary pumps, means of aiding the actuation of the natural heart walls have been attempted. Both skeletal muscle wraps (‘cardiomyoplasty’) and mechanical compression devices (‘mechanical ventricular actuation’) have been used. In either approach, the external wall surfaces of the heart are compressed and the heart volume altered, thereby pumping blood out of the chambers. Muscle wraps are limited by available space relative to muscle mass required for power, as well as by intrinsic stiffness that compromises re-filling between beats. Both muscle wraps and mechanical compression devices are limited by inability to effectively restrict volume and pressure delivery to one chamber of the heart. This chamber restriction is important because the two sides of the circulation require far different pressures for acceptable function (usually the systemic pressure is 3 to 5 times as high as is the pulmonary pressure). Compressive patterns of either muscle wraps or mechanical devices may also distort heart valves, which can lead to valve leakage.
Therefore, to be effective and safe, mechanical pumping of a person's existing heart, such as through mechanical compression of the ventricles or some other action thereon, must address these issues and concerns in order to effectively and safely pump blood. Specifically, the weakened ventricle or ventricles must rapidly and passively refill between beats at low physiologic pressures, and the valve function must be physiologically adequately. The blood flow to the heart muscle must not be impaired by the mechanical device. Still further, the left and right ventricular pressure independence must be maintained within the heart.
Internal stabilizing components to complete the three-dimensional control of a chambers' boundaries, which components are suspended through the substance of heart walls from the external (to the heart) actuating mechanism should be a useful adjunct. These provide a means to facilitate the precise control of actuation—determining the prescribed pattern and distribution needed to (1) prevent valvular distortion, (2) avoid myocardial blood flow compromise, (3) provide a type of shape alteration of the actuated chamber at end-actuation which will facilitate passive refilling during shape restoration, and (4) ensure relative independence of pressure in the various chambers.
Specifically, U.S. Pat. No. 5,957,977, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses an actuation system for the natural heart utilizing internal and external support structures. That patents provides an internal and external framework mounted internally and externally with respect to the natural heart, and an actuator device or activator mounted to the framework for providing cyclical forces to deform one or more walls of the heart, such as the left ventricular free wall. The invention of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/850,554, which has issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,592,619 further adds to the art of U.S. Pat. No. 5,957,977 and that patent is also incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The application specifically sets forth various embodiments of activator or actuator devices, which are suitable for deforming the heart walls and supplementing and/or providing the pumping function for the natural heart.
While the actuation systems of those patents provide a desirable actuation of the natural heart, it is further desirable to improve upon delivery of mechanical power to those actuation systems. It is particularly desirable to provide power delivery in ways that minimize risk of either mechanical or biologic malfunction over an extremely large number of cycles. The natural heart beats approximately 1 billion times (109 cycles) over 25 years, a reasonably desirable endurance for middle-aged recipients of such devices.
Several obstacles to reaching that goal have been observed in earlier and in conventional implanted medical devices, both for cardiovascular and other purpose.
First, devices in which action of mechanical members requires a residual air chamber (for example, many of the electrical ventricular assist devices) have only succeeded, clinically or experimentally, by having either an external vent or a frequently refillable compliance chamber.
Second, prolonged cyclic stress on flexing polymer membranes has often been complicated by either membrane mechanical failure or mineralization with unacceptable stiffening.
Third, crevasses and spaces between mechanical members, which do not allow and promote free flow of tissue fluid, are followed by several complications of such stasis. Infection is particularly common due to restricted access to such areas by the immune system. Interfaces between metals under such conditions are susceptible to fretting corrosions. With or without fluid stasis, interfaces between two or more dissimilar metals may generate galvanic currents with electrolytic corrosion of one or both metals.
Fourth, irregular moving surfaces and edges may mechanically damage surrounding tissue or encourage immobilizing scar tissue that inhibits function.
Fifth, mechanical linkages used in machinery typically deliver energy at very near the rate and cycle at which it is received. The heart's ejection time, and thus the rate of energy delivery required, however, varies with blood pressure and other physiological changes. Excessive blood pressure spikes are risked by linkages not permitting transient energy storage.
The embodiments described herein are based on avoidance of these complications and so facilitate prolonged clinical durability with minimization of biologic and mechanical failure risk both in (1) transfer of mechanical energy from an extrathoracic source into the chest, and in (2) electromechanical energy conversion. Specifically, it is a common characteristic of most of the embodiments described herein for either transmission of energy from a site to generation to a conduit, and of conduits that then deliver energy to heart actuators, that contours and interfaces are designed to promote a favorable biologic response similar to the pseudosynovial capsules that surround artificial joints.